Iraq - History

1979 - 1991

Saddam's Rise to Power

After previous years' of political coups, the Ba'ath party finally returned to power via a coup in July 1968. Hussein, who was desperately seeking a position of power, became a member of the ruling Revolutionary Command Council. With his newfound influence, Hussein became the force behind President Ahmed Hassan Bakr. Throughout his time in office he asserted control over the government by establishing strict security forces to stifle conflict between the armed forces and the government. Bakr resigned in 1979, and Hussein officially assumed the presidency on July 16, and didn't waste any time in exerting his power over the country and its citizens.

On July 22nd, Hussein convened a meeting of Ba'ath party leaders in which he named 68 "spies" who he claimed were disloyal. The men were later tried and sentenced to execution upon the conviction of treason. Hussein also began repressing any political or social movements that threatened the government. Hussein was also in stark opposition to granting independence to any ethnic or religious groups. Despite this, he remained an influential leader as many Iraqis admired his power and ability to stand up to countries such as Israel and the United States.

The Iran-Iraq War

Shortly after Saddam assumed power, international conflicts began to arise. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution in 1979. (For more detailed information please see the 'Iran' section on the website). As a result, the influence of Shi'ites began to grow in the Middle East, especially in countries with large Shi'ite populations, such as Iraq. Hussein feared that Shi'ite beliefs would threaten his secular government, especially since Shi'ites made up the majority of the population in Iraq. Furthermore, in 1964 exiled Ayatollah Khomeini lived in Iraq in the Shi'ite city of An Najaf, where he became heavily involved with the Shi'ite community and developed a strong global following. Hussein, under pressure from the Shah, expelled Khomeini in 1978. Beyond religious and political differences, Iraq and Iran began to develop regional disputes, specifically over the sovereignty of the Shatt al-Arab waterway.

Hussein publicly asserted that Iraq should not engage in open conflict with Iran; however, in a closed meeting with Salah Omar Al-Ali, Iraq's permanent ambassador to the United Nations, Hussein secretly revealed his intentions to invade and occupy Iran. On September 22, 1980, Iraq invaded Iran by attaching the Mehrabad Airport of Tehran, and invading and seizing the land of Khuzestan, which Hussein declared a new province of Iraq. During the war, Iraq used chemical weapons, such as mustard gas and nerve agents against Iranian forces and Kurdish separatists. The U.S. asserts that Hussein used the chemical weapons to terrorize the Kurds, while Saddam's regime claimed that Iran was responsible for the attack.

The war with Iran claimed over 1.5 million lives, and left both Iran and Iraq in economic ruins. Hussein was in debt $75 billion to other Arab states, leaving him embarrassed and weakened. Furthermore, the war with Iran intensified unstable relations with neighboring country, Kuwait. Saddam owed Kuwait over $30 billion, but argued that since Iraq fought the war for the good of the Gulf Arab states, some of the debt should be forgiven. Kuwait would not accept this argument, and insisted that Saddam pay his debt for the war that he led.

The Gulf War

Tensions with Kuwait began to rise when Hussein put pressure on oil exporting countries to cut back oil production so that he could raise the price of oil to try and raise money to pay off his debts and rebuild Iraq. Kuwait refused to cut production, and led the opposition in OPEC against such cutbacks.

Iraq-Kuwait relations began to deteriorate after a slue of conflicts over oil and border lines. Additionally, Saddam was unsure how the United States, an ally at the time, would react to a prospective invasion of Kuwait. U.S. ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, met with Saddam in an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, where Hussein stated his intention to continue diplomatic talks. U.S. officials indicated that while President George H.W. Bush was against the use of force, he would remain neutral and uninvolved in the Iraq-Kuwait border disputes. Later, Iraq and Kuwait then met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait.

The U.N. Security Council condemned the invasion, drafting Resolution 660. A few days later, the Security Council passed Resolution 661, which prevented member states from buying any commodity or product originating from Iraq or Kuwait. The U.N. then attempted to impose a deadline on Iraq of January 15, 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait. On January 16th, after Iraq failed to meet the deadline, a U.S. led coalition with Security Council support launched aerial attacks on Iraq. U.S. and British ground troops ousted Saddam's army from Kuwait in February of 1991 when Hussein formally announces Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait, however; before leaving, Saddam orders that all oil wells across Kuwait be burned.

In April 1991 the Security Council drafted Resolution 687, requiring Iraq to destroy any weapons of mass destruction and to accept weapons inspectors into the country. In response to increased social tensions between the Iraq government and Iraqi Kurds, the Security Council adopted Resolution 688, which called for UN intervention in Iraq since it was mistreating its own citizens. The no-fly zone was then established, enforced by U.S. and British coalition forces. Despite international attempts at calming conflicts, by September 1991 fighting takes places between Iraqi troops and Kurdish guerrillas.

1992-1996

In May 1992, Iraq provides the complete declaration of all of its biological and missile programs, asserting that they only had a "defensive" biological weapons program. In July, the destruction of chemical weapons and production facilities in Iraq begin to take place. Later that month inspectors are refused entry to the Ministry of Agriculture. The President of the Security Council announces that Iraq's actions constitute a breach of its obligations under UN Resolution 687. Eventually, access is granted at the end of the month.

In September the officials of UNSCOM and the IAEA and the Director of the Iraqi Military Industrialization Corporation produce a report outlining procedures of ongoing weapons inspections. In November, Iraq finally accepts UN Resolution 715 and agrees to the report presented in September, agreeing to cooperate with UNSCOM and IAEA inspectors.

By October 1994, Iraq's compliance with weapons inspectors began to decline, and Iraqi military is deployed towards Kuwait. The Security Council adopts Resolution 949, requesting Iraq to continue to comply with the inspections program and to withdraw military units from near the Kuwaiti border. Iraq later complies and releases a joint Communique with the Russian Federation announcing that it had withdrawn its troops.

On April 14, 1995 the United Nations Security Council passes Resolution 986. Sanctions left post war Iraq economically and socially devastated. The program is set up as a temporary measure to improve the living conditions of the Iraqi people; however, the Iraqi government did not immediately accept the program due to their non-compliance with U.N. Resolution 687.

In July, Iraq admits to having an 'offensive' biological weapons program in addition to its previously announced 'defensive' program. In August of 1995, a family feud results in two Hussein family defectors telling authorities in Jordan about Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction.

Iraq claims General Hussein Kamel, responsible for Iraq's weapons programs, had hidden information from UN inspectors, and admits to a larger biological weapons program. Later that year, in November, the Jordanian government intercepts a shipment of missiles headed for Iraq. A subsequent UNSCOM investigation confirms Iraq has been involved in obtaining sophisticated missiles.

In March 1996, UN weapons inspectors are refused access to a designated inspection site for 17 hours. This is the first in a long series of standoffs between Iraq and the United Nations.

In May, the Iraqi government signs a Memorandum of Understanding with the Security Council, agreeing to the UN Oil-for-Food Program. The program starts with a $US2 billion per six month ceiling amount. Two-thirds of that amount is earmarked to go towards Iraqi humanitarian needs. Other proceeds go towards the Compensation Fund (war reparations payments), UN administration costs and the weapons inspection program. The emphasis of the program is to supply the Iraqi people with adequate food and medicine.

From May to June, Iraq's main chemical agent production facility is destroyed, overseen by UNSCOM inspectors. In June, inspectors experience further delays gaining access to designated inspection sites. The Security Council adopts Resolution 1060; stating Iraq's actions are a violation and requests immediate compliance from Iraq. A day after this resolution was passed, the inspectors are held up again. The Executive Chairman of UNSCOM visits Baghdad to negotiate an agreement, setting out the procedure of inspections at 'sensitive sites.' Finally in December the first lot of oil is exported from Iraq under the Oil-for-Food Program, with the first shipment of food arriving three months later.

From November to February Iraq delays the transportation of parts of missile engines for analysis by UNSCOM inspectors.

1997 - 2003

In June 1997, Iraq interferes with UNSCOM helicopter operations. Later that month, inspectors are held up outside a designated inspection site. The Security Council adopts Resolution 1115, condemning Iraq for the hold ups.

In September, Iraq provides its fifth declaration of its biological weapons program. After a meeting in New York, international weapons experts report the declaration is incomplete and inadequate. Throughout the month, inspectors witness unauthorized movements of vehicles inside areas defined by Iraq as 'sensitive'. Inspectors are refused entry to a presidential site towards the end of the month, and eventually Iraq declares presidential sites are out of bounds to inspectors.

In October, the Security Council adopts Resolution 1134 which requires Iraq to continue to comply with weapons inspectors. Iraq's compliance continues to decrease over the next few weeks. The Deputy Prime Minister of Iraq sends a letter to the President of the Security Council claiming that Iraq will no longer cooperate with UNSCOM officials who are of U.S. nationality.

In November, the Security Council adopts Resolution 1137 condemning Iraq. By mid- November, the majority of UNSCOM personnel left Iraq, leaving minimal staff behind in Baghdad. By the end of November, and after massive diplomatic efforts, UNSCOM inspectors return to Iraq. From this point inspectors are held up, with Iraq particularly refusing entry to presidential sites.

In 1998, with the Iraqi people still in dire economic and social situations, the Oil-for-Food Program ceiling amount is lifted to $US5.26 billion per six month period (two-thirds are allocated to humanitarian needs).

In February, an agreement is reached between the Secretary-General of the UN and the Iraqi government. The agreement establishes a special group, lead by Jayantha Dhanapala, to solely inspect the eight presidential sites. The agreement is signed as a Memorandum of Understanding and is later endorsed by the Security Council in Resolution 1145. As a result, there is improved cooperation between Iraqi officials and UNSCOM inspectors throughout 1998.

On August 5, the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) and the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party (ABSP) decide to halt cooperation with the inspection teams until certain demands were met by the Security Council regarding the oil embargo and relocation of UNSCOM to either Geneva or Vienna. The President of the Security Council refuses to accept Iraq's demands, and inspections continue, despite the Iraqi decision.

Once again the Iraqi government announces that it will not cooperate with UN inspection teams, and the Security Council adopts Resolution 1205 condemning the decision. The next month the Iraqi government says it will allow inspectors to continue. The Security Council members indicate that their confidence in Iraq's intentions will only be established by Iraq's full compliance and cooperation with the inspection teams. Inspections continued until December 16th, when UNSCOM and IAEA staff were withdrawn from Iraq after Iraq's promise to provide absolute compliance was broken.

In 1999 there is tension between the Sunnis and the Shi'ites grows in Iraq. Mass demonstrations follow the assassination of Shia cleric Ayatollah Sadeq al-Sadr. The Security Council painstakingly works to reestablish communication and diplomatic relations between Iraq and the UN, as well as to set out guidelines for future plans of weapons inspection in Iraq. In December, the UN replaces UNSCOM with the newly established UN Monitoring Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) for Iraq, as outlined in Resolution 1284. That month the Security Council also removes the ceiling amount in the Oil-for-Food Program.

A 1999 UNICEF report asserts that infant mortality has increased by 160% since 1991 in Iraq, highlighting the problems of malnutrition and lack of appropriate medication. This causes the UN Sanctions to come under much scrutiny as they are now seen as hurting the Iraqi people, rather than the regime.

In March, 2000, Dr Hans Blix is appointed as Executive Chairman of UNMOVIC, beginning a new era of weapons inspections.

In October, Iraq demands that oil bought under the "oil for food" program is to be paid in Euros, instead of US dollars. Subsequently, claims are made regarding Iraq trying to enforce a government "oil surcharge" on each barrel of oil bought, as well as claims that the government was already benefiting from black-market oil sales.

In February, 2001 coalition forces bomb several command targets around Baghdad. U.S. President George W. Bush describes the attacks as a "routine mission." People in Baghdad, China, Russia, and France all gather to publicly protest the attacks. In June, 2001 the existing UN sanctions are extended for an additional five months. This was not a unanimous decision, as Russia and China had called for an end to the sanctions and France called for a change in the sanctions program.

The sanctions were to be reviewed in the November 2001 UN General Assembly session, however; the events in New York on September 11th altered those plans. Iraq condemned both the terrorist attacks on the U.S. and also the subsequent military action against of Afghanistan.

In January, 2002, during his State of the Union address, President Bush declared that Iraq, North Korea and Iran comprised an "axis of evil."

In May, the UN extends the Oil-for-Food program, and restrictions on civilian goods are lifted for six months.

By late July / early August, the United States and the UK begin a diplomatic campaign against Iraq, accusing the country of being on the verge of developing nuclear, biological and chemical weapons.

The international community is still strongly opposed to military action at this point. Despite this, US President Bush addresses the UN, and England's Prime Minister Tony Blair presents a dossier detailing Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction. In protest, other UK political officials produce a counter-dossier. The British government then drafts a resolution setting out the requirements of Iraq's compliance to weapons inspectors. On September 16th, Iraq informs the UN that weapons inspectors may return to Iraq, free of any conditions. France and Russia both favor proceeding with inspections on the basis of prior UN resolutions, rather than authorizing military action, and China does not support military action against Iraq at this point.

Iraq rejects both the UK and US draft resolutions, and instead choose a plan negotiated by UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan. The plan involved the re-admittance of weapons inspectors to Iraq to search for chemical, biological or ballistic weapons.

In October, the U.S. Congress passes a resolution authorizing the Bush Administration to use military force against Iraq. In response, Saddam declares he will not voluntarily relinquish power. In November the UN passes Resolution 1441 demanding unrestricted access for UN inspectors to search Iraq for weapons of mass destruction. The resolution also states that Iraq remains in a "material breach" of Resolution 687. By mid-November, a team of 25 people from UNMOVIC and the IAEA arrive in Iraq to continue inspections. The US says military action will follow if Iraq fails to comply with the resolution at any time. The Arab League asserts its position that it supports UN inspectors in Iraq but does not support any proposed military action.

Official searches began on November 27. Iraq provided a written account of banned weapons programs on December 8, followed by a (12,000 page) declaration of Iraq's weapon program and its capabilities. It is alleged that the US censored parts of the document before it was turned over to members of the UN Security Council, and later that month the U.S. claimed one of its unmanned surveillance aircrafts flying over the southern "no fly zone" was shot down by Iraqi forces.

In January 2003, political tensions rise when Saddam Hussein claims, in a televised address to Iraqis, that weapons inspectors are, in fact, intelligence operatives. A few weeks later, empty chemical munitions are found near Baghdad. Head of the Iraq National Monitoring Directorate, Hossam Amin, stated that the warheads had been "forgotten". By January 20th, Hans Blix has established a "ten point plan", to which Iraq agrees. The plan allows weapons inspectors to interview Iraqi scientists outside of Iraq and also requires Iraq to prepare further weapons-program documentation for the UN.

On January 27, Hans Blix presents his first report to the UN. The head of the IAEA, Mohamed El Baradei, also reports on the investigation of Iraq's nuclear weapons program. Although neither Blix nor Baradei say Iraq has been uncooperative, Blix reports that Iraq had not fully accepted the UN goal of disarmament. France and Germany still do not support military action at this time, and urge that the inspection process should be completed. Secretary General Kofi Annan also agrees that more time is needed for the weapons inspections.

On January 29th, the UN Security Council meets to decide on its next step. Most parties agree that a higher degree of compliance with Resolution 144, and complete proactive cooperation is needed from Iraq.

On February 5th, Secretary of State, Colin Powell delivers a speech to the UN, promised to contain "compelling evidence" against Iraq, however, the speech failed to alter the division of opinion in the UN.

On February 14th, Hans Blix and Mohamed El Baradei deliver their second reports to the UN Security Council. Blix states that there has been an improvement of Iraqi cooperation and openness, although Iraq still had not genuinely accepted the goal of disarmament. Blix also notes various supplies of nerve agents and quantities of anthrax are yet to be accounted for, and a long-range missile found is in violation with Security Resolutions. Both reports assert that inspections should continue.

By the end of February, the US and UK submit a draft resolution to the UN Security Council which states that Iraq has failed to comply with Resolution 1441.

On March 7th, Blix and El Baradei deliver follow up inspections report to the UN Security Council. Blix says Iraqi cooperation has increased, and the destruction of the Al Samoud missiles had begun, and El Baradei concluded that there was no evidence of a current nuclear program in Iraq. El Baradei also stated that the aluminum tubes were unrelated to Colin Powell's allegation that they were used in a process to enrich uranium.

Following the report was the proposed resolution presented by the U.S. and the UK, and backed by Spain. The resolution needed a total of nine votes and no vetoes from the permanent members of the Security Council. A three week benchmark is then set to measure Iraqi compliance before the resolution is voted upon. A March 17 deadline is set; however, no agreement is reached. The US, UK and Spain withdrew their proposed resolution, and several hours after the draft is withdrawn, Kofi Annan announces the withdrawal of UN personnel from Iraq, including weapons inspectors.

France, China, Germany, and Russia all condemned military action against Iraq. The European Union opposed any non-UN approved military action, and Pope John Paul made a statement calling for a peaceful resolution. An agitated Saddam Hussein and Iraqi officials state that they are ready to fight when need be.

Despite international division and a final report by Hans Blix, On March 18, US President George W. Bush issues Iraq an ultimatum, and military action ensued merely two days later.

Information complied from:
The History of Iraq from 1979 - 2003. Issues Briefs, the National Forum and Contributors.